Resistance of plant life forms of native and regenerated alpine plant communities to experimental trampling
Keywords:
experimental trampling; plant life form; alpine vegetation; Belianske Tatras Mts.; Tatra National Park; Tatra Biosphere Reserve
Abstract
Trampling of vegetation as a result of recreation can adversely affect natural habitats, leading to loss of vegetation and degradation of plant communities. Many studies indicated that intrinsic properties of plant communities appear to be the most important factors determining the response of vegetation to trampling disturbance. Specifically, the dominant life-form of a plant community accounts for more variation in the resistance of communities to trampling than the intensity of the trampling experienced, suggesting that simple assessments based on this trait could guide decisions on access to natural sites. We verify these claims in the Belianske Tatry National Nature Reserve in Slovakia, which has been closed since 1978 due to destruction by mass tourism, with the exception of one trail made accessible since 1993. In researching the resistance of communities according to dominant life forms we adjusted the number of passes according to the minimum (75 tourists) and maximum (225 tourists) daily visitation during the tourist season. The studied communities occur in close proximity to the trails on the saddles through which the open trail passes. Available evidence from our studies suggests that vegetation dominated by hemicryptophytes is more resistant to trampling and recovers from trampling to a greater extent than vegetation dominated by other life forms. Therefore, we selected three alpine communities dominated by hemicryptophytes. In the Juncetum trifidi community, they almost completely dominate, they are mainly composed of grasses. Although they dominate the Junco trifidi-Callunetum vulgaris community, the species, Calluna vulgaris has been added to the woody chamephytes, and thus the woody Chamaephytes achieve a higher cover than in the Juncetum trifidi community. Although in the community Seslerietum tatrae biscutelletosum laevigatae hemicryptophytes dominate, it consists of several plant life forms and its grasses reach greater heights than in previous communities. We found that it is not possible to estimate the resilience of communities to trampling by dominant life forms. Life forms within one community react very similarly, but this statement cannot be generalized globally for all communities. At the same time, we found that if we damage the native community, which subsequently regenerates, the life forms of the community behave differently when damaged repeatedly. More detailed research is needed worldwide, which would point out patterns of behaviour of alpine plant vegetation to trampling.References
Andrés-Abellán, M., López-Serrano, F. R., Morote, F. A. G., & del Cerro-Barja, A. (2006). Assessment of trampling simulation impacts on native vegetation in Mediterranean sclerophyllous forest. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 120, 93–107.
Arnesen, T. (1999). Vegetation dynamics following trampling in rich fen at Solendet, Central Norway: A 15 year study of recovery. Nordic Journal of Botany, 19, 313–327.
Barros, A., Gonnet, J., & Pickering, C. (2013). Impacts of informal trails on vegetation and soils in the highest protected area in the Southern Hemisphere. Journal of Environmental Management, 127, 50–60.
Bernhardt-Römermann, M., Gray, A., Vanbergen, A. J., Bergès, L., Bohner, A., Brooker, R. W., De Bruyn, L., De Cinti, B., Dirnböck, T., Grandin, U., Hester, A. J., Kanka, R., Klotz, S., Loucougaray, G., Lundin, L., Matteucci, G., Mészáros, I., Oláh, V., Preda, E., Prévosto, B., Pykälä, J., Schmidt, W., Taylor, M. E., Vadineanu, A., Waldmann, T., & Stadler, J. (2011). Functional traits and local environment predict vegetation responses to disturbance: A pan-European multi-site experiment. Journal of Ecology, 99, 777–787.
Bratton, S. P. (1985). Effects of disturbance by visitors on two woodland orchid species in Great-Smoky-Mountains-National-Park, USA. Biological Conservation, 31, 211–227.
Breland, T. A., & Hansen, S. (1996). Nitrogen mineralization and microbial biomass as affected by soil compaction. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 28, 655–663.
Buckley, R. (2000). Tourism in the most fragile environments. Tourism Recreation Research, 25(1), 31–40.
Burden, R. F., & Randerson, R. F. (1972). Quantitative studies of the effects of human trampling on vegetation as an aid to the management of semi-natural areas. Journal of Applied Ecology, 9, 439–457.
Chapin, F. S., & Chapin, M. C. (1980). Revegetation of anarctic disturbed site by native tundra species. Journal od Applied Ecology, 17, 449–456.
Cole, D. N. (1987). Effects of three seasons of experimental trampling on five montane forest communities and a grassland in western Montana, USA. Biological Conservation, 40, 219–244.
Cole, D. N. (1995a). Experimental trampling of vegetation. I. Relationship between trampling intensity and vegetation response. Journal of Applied Ecology, 32, 203–214.
Cole, D. N. (1995b). Experimental trampling of vegetation. II. Predictors of resistance and resilience. Journal of Applied Ecology, 32, 215–224.
Cole, D. N. (2004). Impacts of hiking and camping on soils and vegetation: A review. In: Buckley, R. (Ed.). Environmental impact of ecotourism. CABI Publishing, Oxfordshire. Pp. 41–60.
Cole, D. N., & Bayfield, N. G. (1993). Recreational trampling of vegetation – standard experimental procedures. Biological Conservation, 63, 209–215.
Cole, D. N., & Monz, C. A. (2002). Trampling disturbance of high-elevation vegetation, Wind rivermountains, Wyoming, USA. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research, 34, 365–376.
Crisfield, V. E., Macdonald, S. E., & Gould, A. J. (2012). Effects of recreational traffic on alpine plant communities in the Northern Canadian Rockies. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research, 44, 277–287.
Del Moral, R. (1979). Predicting human impact on high elevation ecosystems. In: Ittner, R., Potter, D. R., Agee, J. K., & Anschell, S. (Eds.). Recreational impact on wildlands. USDA Forest Service Pacific Northwest Region, Seattle. Pp. 292–303.
Dhar, U. (2002). Conservation implications of plant endemism in high altitude Himalaya. Current Science, 82, 141–148.
Forbes, B. C., Monz, C., & Tolvanen, A. (2004). Tourism ecological impacts in terrestrial polar ecosystems. In: Buckley, R. (Ed.). Environmental impact of ecotourism. CABI Publishing, Oxfordshire. Pp. 155–170.
Forsberg, O. (2010). Changes over time in remnant rural vegetation within built-up areas – recreational use, vegetation dynamics and conservation assessment. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala.
Fortunel, C., Garnier, E., Joffre, R., Kazakou, E., Quested, H., Grigulis, K. et al. (2009). Leaf traits capture the effects of land use changes and climate on litter decomposability of grasslands across Europe. Ecology, 90, 598–611.
Francis, R. A., Gurnell, A. M., Petts, G. E., & Edwards, P. J. (2005). Survival and growth responses of Populus nigra, Salix elaeagnos and Alnus incana cuttings to varying levels of hydric stress. Forest Ecology and Management, 210, 291–301.
Gallet, S., & Roze, F. (2001). Resistance of Atlantic heathlands to trampling in Brittany (France): Influence of vegetation type, season and weather conditions. Biological Conservation, 97, 189–198.
Gallet, S., & Rozé, F. (2002). Long-term effects of trampling on Atlantic heathland in Brittany (France): Resilience and tolerance in relation to season and meteorological conditions. Biological Conservation, 103, 267–275.
Gallet, S., Lemauviel, S., & Rozé, F. (2004). Responses of three heathland shrubs to single or repeated experimental trampling. Environmental Management, 33, 821–829.
Gomez-Limon, F. J., & De Lucio, J. V. (1995). Recreational activities and loss of diversity in grasslands in Alta-Manzanares-Natural-Park, Spain. Biological Conservation, 74, 99–105.
Grime, J. P., & Campbell, B. D. (1991). Growth rate, habitat productivity and stress response. In: Monney, H. A., Pel, E. J., Winner, W. E. (Eds.). Response of plant to multiple stresses. Academic Press, New York. Pp. 143–159.
Hill, W., & Pickering, C. M. (2006). Vegetation associated with different walking track types in the Kosciuszko alpine area, Australia. Journal of Environmental Management, 78, 24–34.
Jägerbrand, A. K., & Alatalo, J. M. (2015). Effects of human trampling on abundance and diversity of vascular plants, bryophytes andlichens in alpine heath vegetation, Northern Sweden. SpringerPlus, 4, 95.
Jurko, A. (1990). Ecological and socioeconomic assessment of vegetation. Príroda, Bratislava.
Kissling, M., Hegetschweiler, K. T., Rusterholz, H. P., & Baur, B. (2009). Short-term and long-term effects of human trampling on above-ground vegetation, soil density, soil organic matter and soil microbial processes in suburban beech forests. Applied Soil Ecology, 42, 303–314.
Körner, C. (2003). Alpine plant life: Functional plant ecology of high mountain ecosystems. 2nd ed. Springer, Berlin.
Kozlowski, T. T. (1999). Soil compaction and growth of woody plants. Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research, 14, 596–619.
Kuss, F. R., & Hall, C. N. (1991). Ground flora trampling studies: Five years after closure. Environmental Management, 15, 715–727.
Lei, S. A. (2004). Soil compaction from human trampling, biking, and off-road motor vehicle activity in a blackbrush (Coleogyne ramosissima) shrubland. Western North American Naturalist, 64, 125–130.
Leung, Y., & Marion, J. (2000). Recreation impacts and management in wilderness: A state-of-knowledge review. In: Cole, D., McCool, S., Borrie, W., Oloughlin, J. (Eds.). Wilderness ecosystems, threats, and management. US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Ogden. Pp. 23–48.
Li, W., Zheng, T. D., Cheng, K. P., & He, S. Q. (2023). Changes in functional traits and diversity of typical alpine grasslands after a short-term trampling disturbance. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, 11, 1154911.
Liddle, M. J. (1975a). A selective review of the ecological effects of human trampling on natural ecosystems. Biological Conservation, 7, 17–36.
Liddle, M. J. (1975b). A theoretical relationship between the primary productivity of vegetation and its ability to tolerate trampling. Biological Conservation, 8, 251–255.
MacGillivray, C. W., Grime, J. P. & ISP Team (1995). Testing predictions of the resistance and resilience of vegetation subjected to extreme events. Functional Ecology, 9, 640–649.
Memoli, V., Esposito, F., Panico, S., De Marco, A., Barile, R., & Maisto, G. (2019). Evaluation of tourism impact on soil metal accumulation through single and integrated indices. Science of the Total Environment, 682, 685–691.
Pertierra, L. R., Lara, F., Tejedo, P., Quesada, A., & Benayas, J. (2013). Rapid denudation processes in cryptogamic communities from Maritime Antarctica subjected to human trampling. Antarctic Science, 25, 318–328.
Pescott, O., & Gavin, S. (2014). Assessing the impact of human trampling on vegetation: A systematic review and meta-analysis of experimental evidence. PeerJ, 2, e360.
Pickering, C. M., & Growcock, A. J. (2009). Impacts of experimental trampling on tall alpine herbfields and subalpine grasslands in the Australian Alps. Journal of Environmental Management, 91, 532–540.
Pickering, C. M., & Hill, W. (2007). Impacts of recreation and tourism on plant biodiversity and vegetation in protected areas in Australia. Journal of Environmental Management, 85, 791–800.
Piscová, V., Ševčík, M., Hreško, J., & Petrovič, F. (2021). Effects of a short term trampling experiment on Alpine vegetation in the Tatras, Slovakia. Sustainability, 13(5), 2750.
Price, M. F. (2004). Conservation and sustainable development in mountain areas. IUCN, Gland, Cambridge.
Pullin, A. S., & Knight, T. M. (2003). Support for decision making in conservation practice: An evidence-based approach. Journal for Nature Conservation, 11, 83–90.
Pullin, A. S., & Stewart, G. B. (2006). Guidelines for systematic review in conservation and environmental management. Conservation Biology, 20, 1647–1656.
Ram, J., Singh, J. S., & Singh, S. P. (1989). Plant biomass, species diversity and net primary production in a Central Himalayan high altitude grassland. Journal of Ecology, 77, 456–468.
Raunkier, C. (1934). The life forms of plants and statistical plant geography. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Roovers, P., Gulinck, H., & Hermy, M. (2005). Experimental assessment of initial revegetation on abandoned paths in temperate deciduous forest. Applied Vegetation Science, 8, 139–148.
Roovers, P., Verheyen, K., Hermy, M., & Gulinck, H. (2004). Experimental trampling and vegetation recovery in some forest and heath-land communities. Applied Vegetation Science, 7, 111–118.
SHMI (2015). Climate atlas of Slovakia. Slovak Hydro-Meteorological Institute, Bratislava.
Šťastný, P., Nieplová, E., & Melo, M. (2002). Average air temperature in January 1:2,000,000. In: Landscape atlas of the Slovak Republic. Ministry of the Environment of the Slovak Republic, Bratislava.
Stewart, G. (2010). Meta-analysis in applied ecology. Biology Letters, 6, 78–81.
Sun, D., & Liddle, M. J. (1993). The morphological responses of some Australian tussock grasses and the importance of tiller number in their resistance to trampling. Biological Conservation, 65, 43–49.
Sutherland, W. J., Pullin, A. S., Dolman, P. M., & Knight, T. M. (2004). The need for evidence-basedconservation. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 19, 305–308.
Talbot, L. M., Turton, S. M., & Graham, A. W. (2003). Trampling resistance of tropical rainforest soils and vegetation in the wet tropics of North East Australia. Journal of Environmental Management, 69, 63–69.
Wang, X., Dong, S., Sherman, R., Liu, Q., Liu, S., Li, S., & Wu, Y. (2015). A comparison of biodiversity ecosystem function relationships in alpine grasslands across a degradation gradient on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. Rangeland Ecology and Management, 37, 45–55.
Xu, L., Freitas, S. M. A., Yu, F. H., Dong, M., Anten, N. P. R., & Werger, M. J. A. (2013). Effects of trampling on morphological and mechanical traits of dryland shrub species do not depend on water availability. PLoS One, 8, e53021.
Yorks, T., West, N., Mueller, R., & Warren, S. D. (1997). Toleration of traffic by vegetation: Life form conclusions and summary extracts from a comprehensive data base. Environmental Management, 21, 121–131.
Yuejin, L., Chen Kelong, C., Zhifeng, L., & Guangchao, C. (2022). Short-term impacts of trampling on selected soil and vegetation properties of alpine grassland in Qilian Mountain National Park,China. Global Ecology and Conservation, 36, e02148.
Arnesen, T. (1999). Vegetation dynamics following trampling in rich fen at Solendet, Central Norway: A 15 year study of recovery. Nordic Journal of Botany, 19, 313–327.
Barros, A., Gonnet, J., & Pickering, C. (2013). Impacts of informal trails on vegetation and soils in the highest protected area in the Southern Hemisphere. Journal of Environmental Management, 127, 50–60.
Bernhardt-Römermann, M., Gray, A., Vanbergen, A. J., Bergès, L., Bohner, A., Brooker, R. W., De Bruyn, L., De Cinti, B., Dirnböck, T., Grandin, U., Hester, A. J., Kanka, R., Klotz, S., Loucougaray, G., Lundin, L., Matteucci, G., Mészáros, I., Oláh, V., Preda, E., Prévosto, B., Pykälä, J., Schmidt, W., Taylor, M. E., Vadineanu, A., Waldmann, T., & Stadler, J. (2011). Functional traits and local environment predict vegetation responses to disturbance: A pan-European multi-site experiment. Journal of Ecology, 99, 777–787.
Bratton, S. P. (1985). Effects of disturbance by visitors on two woodland orchid species in Great-Smoky-Mountains-National-Park, USA. Biological Conservation, 31, 211–227.
Breland, T. A., & Hansen, S. (1996). Nitrogen mineralization and microbial biomass as affected by soil compaction. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 28, 655–663.
Buckley, R. (2000). Tourism in the most fragile environments. Tourism Recreation Research, 25(1), 31–40.
Burden, R. F., & Randerson, R. F. (1972). Quantitative studies of the effects of human trampling on vegetation as an aid to the management of semi-natural areas. Journal of Applied Ecology, 9, 439–457.
Chapin, F. S., & Chapin, M. C. (1980). Revegetation of anarctic disturbed site by native tundra species. Journal od Applied Ecology, 17, 449–456.
Cole, D. N. (1987). Effects of three seasons of experimental trampling on five montane forest communities and a grassland in western Montana, USA. Biological Conservation, 40, 219–244.
Cole, D. N. (1995a). Experimental trampling of vegetation. I. Relationship between trampling intensity and vegetation response. Journal of Applied Ecology, 32, 203–214.
Cole, D. N. (1995b). Experimental trampling of vegetation. II. Predictors of resistance and resilience. Journal of Applied Ecology, 32, 215–224.
Cole, D. N. (2004). Impacts of hiking and camping on soils and vegetation: A review. In: Buckley, R. (Ed.). Environmental impact of ecotourism. CABI Publishing, Oxfordshire. Pp. 41–60.
Cole, D. N., & Bayfield, N. G. (1993). Recreational trampling of vegetation – standard experimental procedures. Biological Conservation, 63, 209–215.
Cole, D. N., & Monz, C. A. (2002). Trampling disturbance of high-elevation vegetation, Wind rivermountains, Wyoming, USA. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research, 34, 365–376.
Crisfield, V. E., Macdonald, S. E., & Gould, A. J. (2012). Effects of recreational traffic on alpine plant communities in the Northern Canadian Rockies. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research, 44, 277–287.
Del Moral, R. (1979). Predicting human impact on high elevation ecosystems. In: Ittner, R., Potter, D. R., Agee, J. K., & Anschell, S. (Eds.). Recreational impact on wildlands. USDA Forest Service Pacific Northwest Region, Seattle. Pp. 292–303.
Dhar, U. (2002). Conservation implications of plant endemism in high altitude Himalaya. Current Science, 82, 141–148.
Forbes, B. C., Monz, C., & Tolvanen, A. (2004). Tourism ecological impacts in terrestrial polar ecosystems. In: Buckley, R. (Ed.). Environmental impact of ecotourism. CABI Publishing, Oxfordshire. Pp. 155–170.
Forsberg, O. (2010). Changes over time in remnant rural vegetation within built-up areas – recreational use, vegetation dynamics and conservation assessment. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala.
Fortunel, C., Garnier, E., Joffre, R., Kazakou, E., Quested, H., Grigulis, K. et al. (2009). Leaf traits capture the effects of land use changes and climate on litter decomposability of grasslands across Europe. Ecology, 90, 598–611.
Francis, R. A., Gurnell, A. M., Petts, G. E., & Edwards, P. J. (2005). Survival and growth responses of Populus nigra, Salix elaeagnos and Alnus incana cuttings to varying levels of hydric stress. Forest Ecology and Management, 210, 291–301.
Gallet, S., & Roze, F. (2001). Resistance of Atlantic heathlands to trampling in Brittany (France): Influence of vegetation type, season and weather conditions. Biological Conservation, 97, 189–198.
Gallet, S., & Rozé, F. (2002). Long-term effects of trampling on Atlantic heathland in Brittany (France): Resilience and tolerance in relation to season and meteorological conditions. Biological Conservation, 103, 267–275.
Gallet, S., Lemauviel, S., & Rozé, F. (2004). Responses of three heathland shrubs to single or repeated experimental trampling. Environmental Management, 33, 821–829.
Gomez-Limon, F. J., & De Lucio, J. V. (1995). Recreational activities and loss of diversity in grasslands in Alta-Manzanares-Natural-Park, Spain. Biological Conservation, 74, 99–105.
Grime, J. P., & Campbell, B. D. (1991). Growth rate, habitat productivity and stress response. In: Monney, H. A., Pel, E. J., Winner, W. E. (Eds.). Response of plant to multiple stresses. Academic Press, New York. Pp. 143–159.
Hill, W., & Pickering, C. M. (2006). Vegetation associated with different walking track types in the Kosciuszko alpine area, Australia. Journal of Environmental Management, 78, 24–34.
Jägerbrand, A. K., & Alatalo, J. M. (2015). Effects of human trampling on abundance and diversity of vascular plants, bryophytes andlichens in alpine heath vegetation, Northern Sweden. SpringerPlus, 4, 95.
Jurko, A. (1990). Ecological and socioeconomic assessment of vegetation. Príroda, Bratislava.
Kissling, M., Hegetschweiler, K. T., Rusterholz, H. P., & Baur, B. (2009). Short-term and long-term effects of human trampling on above-ground vegetation, soil density, soil organic matter and soil microbial processes in suburban beech forests. Applied Soil Ecology, 42, 303–314.
Körner, C. (2003). Alpine plant life: Functional plant ecology of high mountain ecosystems. 2nd ed. Springer, Berlin.
Kozlowski, T. T. (1999). Soil compaction and growth of woody plants. Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research, 14, 596–619.
Kuss, F. R., & Hall, C. N. (1991). Ground flora trampling studies: Five years after closure. Environmental Management, 15, 715–727.
Lei, S. A. (2004). Soil compaction from human trampling, biking, and off-road motor vehicle activity in a blackbrush (Coleogyne ramosissima) shrubland. Western North American Naturalist, 64, 125–130.
Leung, Y., & Marion, J. (2000). Recreation impacts and management in wilderness: A state-of-knowledge review. In: Cole, D., McCool, S., Borrie, W., Oloughlin, J. (Eds.). Wilderness ecosystems, threats, and management. US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Ogden. Pp. 23–48.
Li, W., Zheng, T. D., Cheng, K. P., & He, S. Q. (2023). Changes in functional traits and diversity of typical alpine grasslands after a short-term trampling disturbance. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, 11, 1154911.
Liddle, M. J. (1975a). A selective review of the ecological effects of human trampling on natural ecosystems. Biological Conservation, 7, 17–36.
Liddle, M. J. (1975b). A theoretical relationship between the primary productivity of vegetation and its ability to tolerate trampling. Biological Conservation, 8, 251–255.
MacGillivray, C. W., Grime, J. P. & ISP Team (1995). Testing predictions of the resistance and resilience of vegetation subjected to extreme events. Functional Ecology, 9, 640–649.
Memoli, V., Esposito, F., Panico, S., De Marco, A., Barile, R., & Maisto, G. (2019). Evaluation of tourism impact on soil metal accumulation through single and integrated indices. Science of the Total Environment, 682, 685–691.
Pertierra, L. R., Lara, F., Tejedo, P., Quesada, A., & Benayas, J. (2013). Rapid denudation processes in cryptogamic communities from Maritime Antarctica subjected to human trampling. Antarctic Science, 25, 318–328.
Pescott, O., & Gavin, S. (2014). Assessing the impact of human trampling on vegetation: A systematic review and meta-analysis of experimental evidence. PeerJ, 2, e360.
Pickering, C. M., & Growcock, A. J. (2009). Impacts of experimental trampling on tall alpine herbfields and subalpine grasslands in the Australian Alps. Journal of Environmental Management, 91, 532–540.
Pickering, C. M., & Hill, W. (2007). Impacts of recreation and tourism on plant biodiversity and vegetation in protected areas in Australia. Journal of Environmental Management, 85, 791–800.
Piscová, V., Ševčík, M., Hreško, J., & Petrovič, F. (2021). Effects of a short term trampling experiment on Alpine vegetation in the Tatras, Slovakia. Sustainability, 13(5), 2750.
Price, M. F. (2004). Conservation and sustainable development in mountain areas. IUCN, Gland, Cambridge.
Pullin, A. S., & Knight, T. M. (2003). Support for decision making in conservation practice: An evidence-based approach. Journal for Nature Conservation, 11, 83–90.
Pullin, A. S., & Stewart, G. B. (2006). Guidelines for systematic review in conservation and environmental management. Conservation Biology, 20, 1647–1656.
Ram, J., Singh, J. S., & Singh, S. P. (1989). Plant biomass, species diversity and net primary production in a Central Himalayan high altitude grassland. Journal of Ecology, 77, 456–468.
Raunkier, C. (1934). The life forms of plants and statistical plant geography. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Roovers, P., Gulinck, H., & Hermy, M. (2005). Experimental assessment of initial revegetation on abandoned paths in temperate deciduous forest. Applied Vegetation Science, 8, 139–148.
Roovers, P., Verheyen, K., Hermy, M., & Gulinck, H. (2004). Experimental trampling and vegetation recovery in some forest and heath-land communities. Applied Vegetation Science, 7, 111–118.
SHMI (2015). Climate atlas of Slovakia. Slovak Hydro-Meteorological Institute, Bratislava.
Šťastný, P., Nieplová, E., & Melo, M. (2002). Average air temperature in January 1:2,000,000. In: Landscape atlas of the Slovak Republic. Ministry of the Environment of the Slovak Republic, Bratislava.
Stewart, G. (2010). Meta-analysis in applied ecology. Biology Letters, 6, 78–81.
Sun, D., & Liddle, M. J. (1993). The morphological responses of some Australian tussock grasses and the importance of tiller number in their resistance to trampling. Biological Conservation, 65, 43–49.
Sutherland, W. J., Pullin, A. S., Dolman, P. M., & Knight, T. M. (2004). The need for evidence-basedconservation. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 19, 305–308.
Talbot, L. M., Turton, S. M., & Graham, A. W. (2003). Trampling resistance of tropical rainforest soils and vegetation in the wet tropics of North East Australia. Journal of Environmental Management, 69, 63–69.
Wang, X., Dong, S., Sherman, R., Liu, Q., Liu, S., Li, S., & Wu, Y. (2015). A comparison of biodiversity ecosystem function relationships in alpine grasslands across a degradation gradient on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. Rangeland Ecology and Management, 37, 45–55.
Xu, L., Freitas, S. M. A., Yu, F. H., Dong, M., Anten, N. P. R., & Werger, M. J. A. (2013). Effects of trampling on morphological and mechanical traits of dryland shrub species do not depend on water availability. PLoS One, 8, e53021.
Yorks, T., West, N., Mueller, R., & Warren, S. D. (1997). Toleration of traffic by vegetation: Life form conclusions and summary extracts from a comprehensive data base. Environmental Management, 21, 121–131.
Yuejin, L., Chen Kelong, C., Zhifeng, L., & Guangchao, C. (2022). Short-term impacts of trampling on selected soil and vegetation properties of alpine grassland in Qilian Mountain National Park,China. Global Ecology and Conservation, 36, e02148.
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2023-08-12
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